General Halftrack's inappropriate sexual attraction toward his secretary, Miss Buxley, has been a long-running gag in the comic ever since the general's introduction in 1971, but it never quite reached the 'cream your drawers' level, at least not publicly, until a Swedish publisher decided to collect Walker's previously unpublished, R-rated strips into a single volume in 1994 (Walker is, like, a rock star in Scandinavia). Choice moments in the strips include General Halftrack bemoaning his. Crispin Valve is a family owned and operated company since 1905. A leading manufacturer of Air Valves, Check Valves, Butterfly, Plug, and Gate Valves! A leading manufacturer of Air Valves, Check Valves, Butterfly, Plug, and Gate Valves!
Author | Aldous Huxley |
---|---|
Country | United Kingdom |
Language | English |
Subject | Philosophy |
Published | 1954 Chatto & Windus (UK) Harper & Row (US) |
Media type | Print (hardback & paperback) |
Pages | 63 (hardcover, first edition; without the accompanying essay 'Heaven and Hell', written in 1956) |
ISBN | 0-06-059518-3 |
OCLC | 54372147 |
615/.7883 22 | |
LC Class | RM666.P48 H9 2004 |
Part of a series on |
Psychedelia |
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The Doors of Perception is a book by Aldous Huxley. Published in 1954, it elaborates on his psychedelic experience under the influence of mescaline in May 1953. The book takes its title from a phrase in William Blake's 1793 poem The Marriage of Heaven and Hell.[1] Huxley recalls the insights he experienced, ranging from the 'purely aesthetic' to 'sacramental vision',[2] and reflects on their philosophical and intellectual implications.
- 1Background
- 2Huxley's experience with mescaline
- 4Reception
- 6Influence
Background[edit]
Mescaline (Peyote and San Pedro Cactus)[edit]
Mescaline is the principal active psychedelic agent of the peyote and San Pedro cacti, which have been used in Native American religious ceremonies for thousands of years.[3] A German pharmacologist, Arthur Heffter, isolated the alkaloids in the peyote cactus in 1897. These included mescaline, which he showed through a combination of animal and self-experiments was the compound responsible for the psychoactive properties of the plant. In 1919, Ernst Späth, another German chemist, synthesised the drug.[4] Although personal accounts of taking the cactus had been written by psychologists such as Weir Mitchell in the US and Havelock Ellis in the UK during the 1890s, the German-American Heinrich Kluver was the first to systematically study its psychological effects in a small book called Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucinations published in 1928. The book stated that the drug could be used to research the unconscious mind.
Peyote as entheogen drug[edit]
A peyote cactus, from which mescaline is derived.
In the 1930s, an American anthropologist Weston La Barre, published The Peyote Cult, the first study of the ritual use of peyote as an entheogen drug amongst the Huichol people of western Mexico. La Barre noted that the Indian users of the cactus took it to obtain visions for prophecy, healing and inner strength.[5] Most psychiatric research projects into the drug in the 1930s and early 1940s tended to look at the role of the drug in mimicking psychosis.[6] In 1947 however, the US Navy undertook Project Chatter, which examined the potential for the drug as a truth revealing agent. In the early 1950s, when Huxley wrote his book, mescaline was still regarded as a research chemical rather than a drug and was listed in the Parke-Davis catalogue with no controls.[7] Mescaline also played a paramount part in influencing the beat generation of poets and writers of the later 1940s to the early 1960s. Most notable, William S. Burroughs,[8] Jack Kerouac,[9] and Allen Ginsberg[10]—all of whom were respected contemporary beat artists[11] of their generation. Theirs and many other contemporary artists works were heavily influenced by over the counter forms of mescaline during this time due to its potency and attainability.
Huxley had been interested in spiritual matters and had used alternative therapies for some time. In 1936 he told TS Eliot that he was starting to meditate,[12] and he used other therapies too; the Alexander Technique and the Bates Method of seeing had particular importance in guiding him through personal crises.[13] In the late 1930s he had become interested in the spiritual teaching of Vedanta and in 1945 he published The Perennial Philosophy, which set out a philosophy that he believed was found amongst mystics of all religions. He had known for some time of visionary experience achieved by taking drugs in certain non-Christian religions.
Research by Humphry Osmond[edit]
Huxley had first heard of peyote use in ceremonies of the Native American Church in New Mexico soon after coming to the United States in 1937.[14] He first became aware of the cactuses' active ingredient, mescaline, after reading an academic paper written by Humphry Osmond, a British psychiatrist working at Weyburn Mental Hospital, Saskatchewan in early 1952. Osmond's paper set out results from his research into schizophrenia using mescaline that he had been undertaking with colleagues, doctors Abram Hoffer and John Smythies.[15][16] In the epilogue to his novel The Devils of Loudun, published earlier that year, Huxley had written that drugs were 'toxic short cuts to self-transcendence”.[17] For the Canadian writer George Woodcock, Huxley had changed his opinion because mescaline was not addictive and appeared to be without unpleasant physical or mental side-effects, further he had found that hypnosis, autohypnosis and meditation had apparently failed to produce the results he wanted.[18]
Huxley's experience with mescaline[edit]
After reading Osmond's paper, Huxley sent him a letter on Thursday, 10 April 1952, expressing interest in the research and putting himself forward as an experimental subject. His letter explained his motivations as being rooted in an idea that the brain is a reducing valve that restricts consciousness and hoping mescaline might help access a greater degree of awareness (an idea he later included in the book).[19] Reflecting on his stated motivations, Woodcock wrote that Huxley had realised that the ways to enlightenment were many, including prayer and meditation. He hoped drugs might also break down the barriers of the ego, and both draw him closer to spiritual enlightenment and satisfy his quest as a seeker of knowledge.[20]
In a second letter on Saturday, 19 April, Huxley invited Osmond to stay while he was visiting Los Angeles to attend the American Psychiatric Association convention.[21] He also wrote that he looked forward to the mescaline experience and reassured Osmond that his doctor did not object to his taking it.[19] Huxley had invited his friend, the writer Gerald Heard, to participate in the experiment; although Heard was too busy this time, he did join him for a session in November of that year.[22]
Day of the experiment[edit]
Osmond arrived at Huxley's house in West Hollywood on Sunday, 3 May 1953, and recorded his impressions of the famous author as a tolerant and kind man, although he had expected otherwise. The psychiatrist had misgivings about giving the drug to Huxley, and wrote, 'I did not relish the possibility, however remote, of being the man who drove Aldous Huxley mad,' but instead found him an ideal subject. Huxley was 'shrewd, matter-of-fact and to the point' and his wife Maria 'eminently sensible'.[23] Overall, they all liked each other, which was very important when administering the drug. The mescaline was slow to take effect, but Osmond saw that after two and a half hours the drug was working and after three hours Huxley was responding well.[24] The experience lasted eight hours and both Osmond and Maria remained with him throughout.[25]
The experience started in Huxley's study before the party made a seven block trip to The Owl Drug (Rexall) store, known as World's Biggest Drugstore, at the corner of Beverly and La Cienega Boulevards. Huxley was particularly fond of the shop and the large variety of products available there (in stark contrast to the much smaller selection in English chemist's shops). There he considered a variety of paintings in art books. For one of his friends, Huxley's poor eyesight manifested in both a great desire to see and a strong interest in painting, which influenced the strong visual and artistic nature of his experience.[26]
After returning home to listen to music, eat, and walk in the garden, a friend drove the threesome to the hills overlooking the city. Photographs show Huxley standing, alternately arms on hips and outstretched with a grin on his face. Finally, they returned home and to ordinary consciousness.[27] One of Huxley’s friends who met him on the day said that despite writing about wearing flannel trousers, he was actually wearing blue jeans. Huxley admitted to having changed the fabric as Maria thought he should be better dressed for his readers.[28] Osmond later said he had a photo of the day that showed Huxley wearing flannels.[29]
Compilation of the book[edit]
One of the copies of William Blake's unique hand painted editions, created for the original printing of the poem. The line from which Huxley draws the title is in the second to last paragraph. This image represents Copy H, Plate 14 of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell which is currently held at The Fitzwilliam Museum.[30]
After Osmond's departure, Huxley and Maria left to go on a three-week, 5,000-mile (8,000-kilometre) car trip around the national parks of the North West of the USA. After returning to Los Angeles, he took a month to write the book.[31]The Doors of Perception was the first book Huxley dedicated to his wife Maria.[32] Harold Raymond, at his publisher Chatto and Windus, said of the manuscript, 'You are the most articulate guinea pig that any scientist could hope to engage.'[29] The title was taken from William Blake's poem The Marriage of Heaven and Hell:
If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is: Infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro' narrow chinks of his cavern.[33]
Huxley had used Blake's metaphor in The Doors of Perception while discussing the paintings of Vermeer and the Nain brothers, and previously in The Perennial Philosophy, once in relation to the use of mortification as a means to remove persistent spiritual myopia and secondly to refer to the absence of separation in spiritual vision.[34] Blake had a resounding impact on Huxley, he shared many of Blake's earlier revelations and interests in art and literature.[35] In the early 1950s, Huxley had suffered a debilitating attack of the eye condition iritis. This increased his concern for his already poor eyesight and much of his work in the early part of the decade had featured metaphors of vision and sight.[36]
Synopsis[edit]
After a brief overview of research into mescaline, Huxley recounts that he was given 4/10 of a gram at 11:00 am one day in May 1953. Huxley writes that he hoped to gain insight into extraordinary states of mind and expected to see brightly coloured visionary landscapes. When he only sees lights and shapes, he puts this down to being a bad visualiser; however, he experiences a great change in his perception of the external world.[37]
By 12:30 pm, a vase of flowers becomes the 'miracle, moment by moment, of naked existence'. The experience, he asserts, is neither agreeable nor disagreeable, but simply 'is'. He likens it to Meister Eckhart's 'istigheit' or 'is-ness', and Plato's 'Being' but not separated from 'Becoming'. He feels he understands the Hindu concept of Satchitananda, as well as the Zenkoan that, 'the dharma body of the Buddha is in the hedge' and Buddhist suchness. In this state, Huxley explains he didn't have an 'I', but instead a 'not-I'. Meaning and existence, pattern and colour become more significant than spatial relationships and time. Duration is replaced by a perpetual present.[38]
Reflecting on the experience afterwards, Huxley finds himself in agreement with philosopher C. D. Broad that to enable us to live, the brain and nervous system eliminate unessential information from the totality of the 'Mind at Large'.[39]
The Milkmaid by Johannes Vermeer. 'That mysterious artist was truly gifted with the vision that perceives the Dharma-Body as the hedge at the bottom of the garden', reflected Huxley.
In summary, Huxley writes that the ability to think straight is not reduced while under the influence of mescaline, visual impressions are intensified, and the human experimenter will see no reason for action because the experience is so fascinating.[40]
Temporarily leaving the chronological flow, he mentions that four or five hours into the experience he was taken to the World's Biggest Drug Store (WBDS), where he was presented with books on art. In one book, the dress in Botticelli's Judith provokes a reflection on drapery as a major artistic theme as it allows painters to include the abstract in representational art, to create mood, and also to represent the mystery of pure being.[41] Huxley feels that human affairs are somewhat irrelevant whilst on mescaline and attempts to shed light on this by reflecting on paintings featuring people.[42]Cézanne's Self-portrait with a straw hat seems incredibly pretentious, while Vermeer's human still lifes (also, the Le Nain brothers and Vuillard) are the nearest to reflecting this not-self state.[43]
For Huxley, the reconciliation of these cleansed perceptions with humanity reflects the age old debate between active and contemplative life, known as the way of Martha and the way of Mary. As Huxley believes that contemplation should also include action and charity, he concludes that the experience represents contemplation at its height, but not its fullness. Correct behaviour and alertness are needed. Nonetheless, Huxley maintains that even quietistic contemplation has an ethical value, because it is concerned with negative virtues and acts to channel the transcendent into the world.[44]
The Red Hot Poker flowers in Huxley's garden were 'so passionately alive that they seemed to be standing on the very brink of utterance'.
After listening to Mozart's C-Minor Piano Concerto, Gesualdo's madrigals and Alban Berg's Lyric Suite,[45] Huxley heads into the garden. Outside, the garden chairs take on such an immense intensity that he fears being overwhelmed; this gives him an insight into madness. He reflects that spiritual literature, including the works of Jakob Böhme, William Law and the Tibetan Book of the Dead, talks of these pains and terrors. Huxley speculates that schizophrenia is the inability to escape from this reality into the world of common sense and thus help would be essential.[46]
After lunch and the drive to the WBDS he returns home and to his ordinary state of mind. His final insight is taken from Buddhist scripture: that within sameness there is difference, although that difference is not different from sameness.[47]
The book finishes with Huxley's final reflections on the meaning of his experience. Firstly, the urge to transcend one's self is universal through times and cultures (and was characterised by H. G. Wells as The Door in the Wall).[48] He reasons that better, healthier 'doors' are needed than alcohol and tobacco. Mescaline has the advantage of not provoking violence in takers, but its effects last an inconveniently long time and some users can have negative reactions. Ideally, self-transcendence would be found in religion, but Huxley feels that it is unlikely that this will ever happen. Christianity and mescaline seem well-suited for each other; the Native American Church for instance uses the drug as a sacrament, where its use combines religious feeling with decorum.[49]
Huxley concludes that mescaline is not enlightenment or the Beatific vision, but a 'gratuitous grace' (a term taken from Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologica).[50] It is not necessary but helpful, especially so for the intellectual, who can become the victim of words and symbols. Although systematic reasoning is important, direct perception has intrinsic value too. Finally, Huxley maintains that the person who has this experience will be transformed for the better.
Reception[edit]
The book met with a variety of responses, both positive and negative,[21] from writers in the fields of literature, psychiatry, philosophy and religion. These included a symposium published in The Saturday Review magazine with the unlikely title of, Mescalin – An Answer to Cigarettes, including contributions from Huxley; J.S. Slotkin, a professor of Anthropology; and a physician, Dr. W.C. Cutting.[51]Literature: For the Scottish poet, Edwin Muir “Mr. Huxley's experiment is extraordinary, and is beautifully described”.[52]Thomas Mann, the author and friend of Huxley, believed the book demonstrated Huxley's escapism. He thought that while escapism found in mysticism might be honourable, drugs were not. Huxley's 'aesthetic self-indulgence' and indifference to humanity would lead to suffering or stupidity, and he concluded the book was irresponsible, if not quite immoral, to encourage young people to try the drug.[53]
For Huxley's biographer and friend, the author Sybille Bedford, the book combined sincerity with simplicity, passion with detachment.[54] 'It reflects the heart and mind open to meet the given, ready, even longing, to accept the wonderful. The Doors is a quiet book. It is also one that postulates a goodwill – the choice once more of the nobler hypothesis. It turned out, for certain temperaments, a seductive book.”[55] For biographer David King Dunaway, The Doors of Perception, along with The Art of Seeing, can be seen as the closest Huxley ever came to autobiographical writing.[56]
Psychiatric responses included those of William Sargant, the controversial British psychiatrist, who reviewed the book for The British Medical Journal and particularly focused on Huxley's reflections on schizophrenia. He wrote that the book brought to life the mental suffering of schizophrenics, which should make psychiatrists uneasy about their failure to relieve this. Also, he hoped that the book would encourage the investigation of the physiological, rather than psychological, aspects of psychiatry.[57] Other medical researchers questioned the validity of Huxley's account. The book contained '99 percent Aldous Huxley and only one half gram mescaline' according to Roland Fisher.[58] Joost A.M. Meerloo found Huxley's reactions 'not necessarily the same as... other people's experiences.'[59]
For Steven J. Novak, The Doors Of Perception (and 'Heaven and Hell') redefined taking mescaline (and LSD, although Huxley had not taken it until after he had written both books) as a mystical experience with possible psychotherapeutic benefits, where physicians had previously thought of the drug in terms of mimicking a psychotic episode, known as psychotomimetic.[60] The popularity of the book also affected research into these drugs, because researchers needed a random sample of subjects with no preconceptions about the drug to conduct experiments, and these became very difficult to find.[61]
In the field of religion, Huxley’s friend and spiritual mentor, the Vedantic monk Swami Prabhavananda, thought that mescaline was an illegitimate path to enlightenment, a 'deadly heresy' as Christopher Isherwood put it.[29]Martin Buber, the Jewish religious philosopher, attacked Huxley's notion that mescaline allowed a person to participate in 'common being', and held that the drug ushered users 'merely into a strictly private sphere'. Philosophically, Buber believed the drug experiences to be holidays 'from the person participating in the community of logos and cosmos—holidays from the very uncomfortable reminder to verify oneself as such a person.' For Buber man must master, withstand and alter his situation, or even leave it, 'but the fugitive flight out of the claim of the situation into situationlessness is no legitimate affair of man.'[62]
Robert Charles Zaehner[edit]
It was probably the criticisms of The Doors of Perception put forward by Robert Charles Zaehner, a professor at Oxford University, that formed the fullest and earliest critiques from a religious and philosophical perspective. In 1954, Zaehner published an article called The Menace of Mescaline, in which he asserted that 'artificial interference with consciousness' could have nothing to do with the Christian 'Beatific Vision'.[63] Zaehner expanded on these criticisms in his book Mysticism Sacred and Profane (1957), which also acts as a theistic riposte to what he sees as the monism of Huxley's The Perennial Philosophy. Although he acknowledged the importance of The Doors of Perception as a challenge to people interested in religious experience,[64] he pointed out what he saw as inconsistencies and self-contradictions.[65] Zaehner concludes that Huxley's apprehensions under mescaline are affected by his deep familiarity with Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism. So the experience may not be the same for others who take the drug and do not have this background, although they will undoubtedly experience a transformation of sensation.[66] Zaehner himself was a convert to Catholicism.
That the longing to transcend oneself is 'one of the principal appetites of the soul'[67] is questioned by Zaehner. There are still people who do not feel this desire to escape themselves,[68] and religion itself need not mean escaping from the ego.[69] Zaehner criticises what he sees as Huxley's apparent call for all religious people to use drugs (including alcohol) as part of their practices.[70] Quoting St Paul's proscriptions against drunkenness in church, in 1 Corinthians xi, Zaehner makes the point that artificial ecstatic states and spiritual union with God are not the same.[65]
Holding that there are similarities between the experience on mescaline, the mania in a manic-depressive psychosis and the visions of God of a mystical saint suggests, for Zaehner, that the saint's visions must be the same as those of a lunatic.[71] The personality is dissipated into the world, for Huxley on mescaline and people in a manic state, which is similar to the experience of nature mystics.[72] However, this experience is different from the theistic mystic who is absorbed into a God, who is quite different from the objective world. The appendices to Mysticism Sacred and Profane include three accounts of mescaline experiences, including those of Zaehner himself. He writes that he was transported into a world of farcical meaninglessness and notes that the experience was interesting and funny, but not religious.
Huxley later wrote that the 'things which had entirely filled my attention on that first occasion [chronicled in The Doors of Perception], I now perceived to be temptations – temptations to escape from the central reality into a false, or at least imperfect and partial Nirvanas of beauty and mere knowledge.'
Huston Smith[edit]
Soon after the publication of his book, Huxley wrote to Harold Raymond at Chatto and Windus that he thought it strange that when Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton wrote the praises of alcohol they were still considered good Christians, while anyone who suggested other routes to self-transcendence was accused of being a drug addict and perverter of mankind.[73] Later Huxley responded to Zaehner in an article published in 1961: 'For most of those to whom the experiences have been vouchsafed, their value is self-evident. By Dr. Zaehner, the author of Mysticism, Sacred and Profane, their deliberate induction is regarded as immoral. To which his colleague, Professor Price, retorts in effect, 'Speak for yourself!'.[74]
Professor of religion and philosophy Huston Smith took issue with the belief that Mysticism Sacred and Profane had fully examined and refuted Huxley's claims made in The Doors of Perception.[75] Smith claims that consciousness-changing substances have been linked with religion both throughout history and across the world, and further it is possible that many religious perspectives had their origins in them, which were later forgotten. Acknowledging that personality, preparation and environment all play a role in the effects of the drugs, Huston Smith draws attention to evidence that suggests that a religious outcome of the experience may not be restricted to one of Huxley's temperament. Further, because Zaehner's experience was not religious, does not prove that none will be. Contrary to Zaehner, Huston Smith draws attention to evidence suggesting that these drugs can facilitate theistic mystical experience.[75]
As the descriptions of naturally occurring and drug-stimulated mystical experiences cannot be distinguished phenomenologically, Huston Smith regards Zaehner's position in Mysticism Sacred and Profane, as a product of the conflict between science and religion – that religion tends to ignore the findings of science. Nonetheless, although these drugs may produce a religious experience, they need not produce a religious life, unless set within a context of faith and discipline. Finally, he concludes that psychedelic drugs should not be forgotten in relation to religion because the phenomenon of religious awe, or the encounter with the holy, is declining and religion cannot survive long in its absence.[75]
Later experience[edit]
Huxley continued to take these substances several times a year until his death,[76] but with a serious and temperate frame of mind.[77] He refused to talk about the substances outside scientific meetings,[78] turned down an invitation to talk about them on TV[79] and refused the leadership of a foundation devoted to the study of psychedelics, explaining that they were only one of his diverse number of interests.[80] For Philip Thody, a professor of French literature, Huxley's revelations made him conscious of the objections that had been put forward to his theory of mysticism set out in Eyeless in Gaza and Grey Eminence, and consequently Island reveals a more humane philosophy.[81] However, this change in perspective may lie elsewhere. In October 1955, Huxley had an experience while on LSD that he considered more profound than those detailed in The Doors of Perception. Huxley was overwhelmed to the point where he decided his previous experiments, the ones detailed in Doors and Heaven and Hell, had been nothing but 'entertaining sideshows.'[82] He wrote in a letter to Humphry Osmond, that he experienced 'the direct, total awareness, from the inside, so to say, of Love as the primary and fundamental cosmic fact. ... I was this fact; or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that this fact occupied the place where I had been. ... And the things which had entirely filled my attention on that first occasion, I now perceived to be temptations – temptations to escape from the central reality into a false, or at least imperfect and partial Nirvanas of beauty and mere knowledge.'[83] The experience made its way into the final chapter of Island.[84] This raised a troublesome point. Was it better to pursue a course of careful psychological experimentation.... or was the real value of these drugs to 'stimulate the most basic kind of religious ecstasy'?[82]
Influence[edit]
A variety of influences have been claimed for the book. The psychedelic proselytiser Timothy Leary was given the book by a colleague soon after returning from Mexico where he had first taken psilocybin mushrooms in the summer of 1960. He found that The Doors of Perception corroborated what he had experienced 'and more too'.[85] Leary soon set up a meeting with Huxley and the two became friendly. The book can also be seen as a part of the history of entheogenic model of understanding these drugs, that sees them within a spiritual context.[86][87][88]
William Blake[edit]
William Blake[89] (Born in London, 28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) who inspired the book's title and writing style, was an influential English artist most notable for his paintings and poetry. The Doors of Perception was originally a metaphor written by Blake, used in his 1790 book, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. The metaphor was used to represent Blake's feelings about mankind's limited perception of the reality around them;'If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, Infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro' narrow chinks of his cavern.”[90]
Cultural references[edit]
- This book was the influence behind Jim Morrison naming his band The Doors in 1965.[91]
- In his 2014 Scientific American article, skeptic Michael Shermer closed his story about an 'anomalous and mystifying event[s] that suggest the existence of the paranormal or supernatural' with the statement advising that 'we should not shut the doors of perception when they may be opened to us to marvel in the mysterious.' The event was that his wife's grandfather's transistor radio, which had been broken, started playing without being touched just before their wedding ceremony.[92][93]
- In the 2016 film Doctor Strange, Stan Lee's character is seen reading the book.[94]
Publication history[edit]
The Doors of Perception is usually published in a combined volume with Huxley's essay Heaven and Hell (1956)
- The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell, 1954, 1956, Harper & Brothers
- 1977 Harpercollins (UK), mass market paperback: ISBN0-586-04437-X
- 1990 Harper Perennial edition: ISBN0-06-090007-5
- 2004 Harper Modern Classics edition: ISBN0-06-059518-3
- 2004 Sagebrush library binding: ISBN1-4176-2859-6
- 2009 First Harper Perennial Modern Classics edition: ISBN978-0-06-172907-2
- The Doors of Perception, unabridged audio cassette, Audio Partners 1998, ISBN1-57270-065-3
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^'If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, Infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro' narrow chinks of his cavern.” William Blake, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
- ^Huxley, Aldous (1954) The Doors of Perception, Chatto and Windus, p. 15
- ^Lower Pecos and Coahuila peyote: new radiocarbon dates. Terry M, Steelman KL, Guilderson T, Dering P, Rowe MW. J Archaeological Science. 2006;33:1017–1021.
- ^About Dr. Arthur HeffterArchived 18 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine Hefter Research Institute Site
- ^Powell, Simon G Mescaline, An OverviewArchived 5 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^Grob, Charles S. Psychiatric Research with Hallucinogens: What have we learned? | The Psychotomimetic Model Yearbook for Ethnomedicine and the Study of Consciousness, Issue 3, 1994
- ^Jay, Mike (2010) High Society: The Central Role of Mind-Altering Drugs in History, Science, and Culture P. 103 Park Street Press, ISBN1-59477-393-9
- ^'American National Biography Online: Burroughs, William S.'www.anb.org. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
- ^'Jack Kerouac'. www.poetryfoundation.org. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
- ^'Allen Ginsberg'. www.poetryfoundation.org. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
- ^'Beat Art - the-artists.org'. the-artists.org. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
- ^Letter to T.S. Eliot, 8 July 1936; Smith, Letters of Aldous Huxley, pp. 405–6
- ^Dunaway, David King, p. 133
- ^Woodcock, George (1972) Dawn and the Darkest Hour: A study of Aldous Huxley, p. 274, Faber & Faber, ISBN0-571-08939-9
- ^'smythies'. www.hofmann.org. Retrieved 17 May 2016.
- ^Bedford, Sybille (1974) Aldous Huxley: A Biography, Volume Two: 1939–1963 p. 144, Chatto & Windus, ISBN0-00-216006-4
- ^Huxley, Aldous (1952), The Devils of Loudun, Chatto & Windus
- ^Woodcock (1972) p. 275
- ^ abBedford (1974) p. 144
- ^Woodcock (1972) p. 274
- ^ abBedford (1974) p. 142
- ^Murray, Nicholas (2003) Aldous Huxley, p. 399, Abacus ISBN0-349-11348-3
- ^Bedford(1974) p. 145
- ^Murray (2003) p. 399
- ^Bedford (1974) p. 145
- ^Peggy Kiskadden in Dunaway, David King (1998) Aldous Huxley recollected: an oral history, p. 97 Rowman Altamira ISBN0-7619-9065-8
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989), pp. 228–300
- ^Bedford (1974) p. 163
- ^ abcMurray (2003) p. 401
- ^Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi (eds.). 'The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, object 14 (Bentley 14, Erdman 14, Keynes 14)'. William Blake Archive. Retrieved 10 June 2014.CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
- ^Bedford (1974) p. 146
- ^Murray (2003) p. 400
- ^Blake, William (1790) The Marriage of Heaven and Hell Plate 14
- ^Huxley, Aldous (1990) The Perennial Philosophy, pp. 107, 189, Perennial, ISBN0-06-090191-8
- ^m. Williams, Nicholas (1 April 2009). ''The Sciences of Life': Living Form in William Blake and Aldous Huxley'. Romanticism. 15 (1): 41–53. doi:10.3366/E1354991X09000506. ISSN1354-991X.
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 283
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 11
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 15
- ^Huxley (1954) pp. 16–7
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 19
- ^Huxley (1954) pp. 21–25
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 27
- ^Huxley (1954) pp. 29–33
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 33
- ^Huxley (1954) pp. 39–40
- ^Huxley (1954) pp. 41–46
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 48
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 49
- ^Huxley (1954) pp. 55–58
- ^Huxley (1954) p. 63
- ^LaBarre, Weston 'Twenty Years of Peyote Studies', Current Anthropology, Vol. 1, No. 1, (Jan. 1960) pp. 45–60
- ^Huxley, Aldous (1954) Dust Jacket
- ^Watt, Conrad (1997) Aldous Huxley, pp. 394–395 Routledge ISBN0-415-15915-6
- ^Bedford (1974) p. 155
- ^Bedford, Sybille (1974) p. 156
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 297
- ^Sargant, William 'Chemical Mysticism', British Medical Journal, Vol. 1, No. 4869 (1 May 1954), p. 1024
- ^Roland Fisher (from Canada) quoted in Louis Cholden, ed. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide and Mescaline in Experimental Psychiatry, p. 67, Grune and Stratton, 1956
- ^Meerloo, Joost A.M. Medication into Submission: The Danger of Therapeutic Coercion, Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 1955, 122: 353–360
- ^Novak, Steven J. LSD before Leary: Sidney Cohen's Critique of 1950s Psychedelic Drug Research, Isis, Vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1997), pp. 87–110
- ^Novak, Steven J. (1997)
- ^Buber, Martin (1965) The Knowledge of Man: Selected Essays ed Maurice S. Friedman, Harper & Row
- ^Richards, William A. 'Entheogens in the Study of Religious Experiences: Current Status', Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 44, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 377–389
- ^Zaehner, RC (1957) Mysticism Sacred and Profane, Clarendon Press, p. 3
- ^ abZaehner p. 25
- ^Zaehner p. 3
- ^Huxley, Aldous (1955), The Doors of Perception, p. 49
- ^Zaehner p. 18
- ^Zaehner, p. 26
- ^Zaehner p. 19
- ^Zaehner, Introduction p.xi
- ^Zaehner p. 28
- ^Murray (2003) p. 403
- ^Huxley, Aldous, Eds. Horowitz, Michael and Palmer, Cynthia Moksha: Aldous Huxley's Classic Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience, p. 214. Park Street Press, ISBN0-89281-758-5
- ^ abcHuston Smith (1964) Do Drugs Have Religious Import?The Journal of Philosophy, 61, 18
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 300
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 327
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 298
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 330
- ^Dunaway, David King (1989) p. 369
- ^Thody, Philip (1973) Aldous Huxley Leaders of Modern Thought, Studio Vista, ISBN0-289-70189-9
- ^ abStevens, Jay (1998) Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream, pp. 56–57, Grove Press, ISBN0-8021-3587-0
- ^Letter to Humphry Osmond, 24 October 1955. in Achera Huxley, Laura (1969) This Timeless Moment. P.139, Chatto & Windus
- ^Achera Huxley, p. 146
- ^Leary, Timothy (1968) High Priest, New World Publishing
- ^Richard, William A. 'Entheogens in the Study of Religious Experiences: Current Status', Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 44, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 377–389
- ^Pollan, Michael (24 December 2018). 'How Does a Writer Put a Drug Trip Into Words?'. The New York Times. ISSN0362-4331. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
- ^'Is psychedelics research closer to theology than to science? – Jules Evans | Aeon Essays'. Aeon. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
- ^http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/biography.xq?b=biography&targ_div=d1.Missing or empty
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(help) - ^William Blake, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
- ^Simmonds, Jeremy (2008). The Encyclopedia of Dead Rock Stars: Heroin, Handguns, and Ham Sandwiches. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 45. ISBN1-55652-754-3.
- ^Shermer, Michael (1 October 2014). 'Anomalous Events That Can Shake One's Skepticism to the Core'. Scientific American. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
- ^Michael Shermer: The Radio (To The Best of Our Knowledge podcast, aired Oct 28, 2017, published to YouTube on Oct 31, 2017)
- ^'11 Doctor Strange Easter eggs you might have missed'. Digital Spy. 29 October 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Doors_of_Perception&oldid=890890384'
In economics, internationalization is the process of increasing involvement of enterprises in international markets, although there is no agreed definition of internationalization.[1] There are several internationalization theories which try to explain why there are international activities[2].
- 2Trade theories
- 3Traditional approaches
- 4Further theories
Entrepreneurs and enterprises[edit]
Those entrepreneurs who are interested in the field of internationalization of business need to possess the ability to think globally and have an understanding of international cultures. By appreciating and understanding different beliefs, values, behaviors and business strategies of a variety of companies within other countries, entrepreneurs will be able to internationalize successfully. Entrepreneurs must also have an ongoing concern for innovation, maintaining a high level of quality, be committed to corporate social responsibility, and continue to strive to provide the best business strategies and either goods or services possible while adapting to different countries and cultures.
Trade theories[edit]
Absolute cost advantage (Adam Smith, 1776)[edit]
Adam Smith claimed that a country should specialise in, and export, commodities in which it had an absolute advantage.[3] An absolute advantage existed when the country could produce a commodity with less costs per unit produced than could its trading partner.[3] By the same reasoning, it should import commodities in which it had an absolute disadvantage.[3]
While there are possible gains from trade with absolute advantage, comparative advantage extends the range of possible mutually beneficial exchanges. In other words, it is not necessary to have an absolute advantage to gain from trade, only a comparative advantage.
Comparative cost advantage (David Ricardo, 1817)[edit]
David Ricardo argued that a country does not need to have an absolute advantage in the production of any commodity for international trade between it and another country to be mutually beneficial.[4] Absolute advantage meant greater efficiency in production, or the use of less labor factor in production.[4] Two countries could both benefit from trade if each had a relative advantage in production.[4] Relative advantage simply meant that the ratio of the labor embodied in the two commodities differed between two countries, such that each country would have at least one commoditiy where the relative amount of labor embodied would be less than that of the other country.[4]
Gravity model of trade (Walter Isard, 1954)[edit]
The gravity model of trade in international economics, similar to other gravity models in social science, predicts bilateral trade flows based on the economic sizes of (often using GDP measurements) and distance between two units. The basic theoretical model for trade between two countries takes the form of:
with:
- : Trade flow
- : Country i and j
- : Economic mass, for example GDP
- : Distance
- : Constant
The model has also been used in international relations to evaluate the impact of treaties and alliances on trade, and it has been used to test the effectiveness of trade agreements and organizations such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Heckscher-Ohlin model (Eli Heckscher, 1966 & Bertil Ohlin, 1952)[edit]
The Heckscher-Ohlin model (H-O model), also known as the factors proportions development, is a general equilibrium mathematical model of international trade, developed by Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin at the Stockholm School of Economics. It builds on David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage by predicting patterns of commerce and production based on the factor endowments of a trading region. The model essentially says that countries will export products that utilize their abundant and cheap factor(s) of production and import products that utilize the countries' scarce factor(s).[5]
The results of this work has been the formulation of certain named conclusions arising from the assumptions inherent in the model. These are known as:
Leontief paradox (Wassily Leontief, 1954)[edit]
Leontief's paradox in economics is that the country with the world's highest capital-per worker has a lowercapital:labour ratio in exports than in imports.
This econometric find was the result of Professor Wassily W. Leontief's attempt to test the Heckscher-Ohlin theory empirically. In 1954, Leontief found that the U.S. (the most capital-abundant country in the world by any criteria) exported labor-intensive commodities and imported capital-intensive commodities, in contradiction with Heckscher-Ohlin theory.
Linder hypothesis (Staffan Burenstam Linder, 1961)[edit]
The Linder hypothesis (demand-structure hypothesis) is a conjecture in economics about international trade patterns. The hypothesis is that the more similar are the demand structures of countries the more they will trade with one another. Further, international trade will still occur between two countries having identical preferences and factor endowments (relying on specialization to create a comparative advantage in the production of differentiated goods between the two nations).
Location theory[edit]
Location theory is concerned with the geographic location of economic activity; it has become an integral part of economic geography, regional science, and spatial economics. Location theory addresses the questions of what economic activities are located where and why. Location theory rests — like microeconomic theory generally — on the assumption that agents act in their own self-interest. Thus firms choose locations that maximize their profits and individuals choose locations, that maximize their utility.
Market imperfection theory (Stephen Hymer, 1976 & Charles P. Kindleberger, 1969 & Richard E. Caves, 1971)[edit]
In economics, a market failure is a situation wherein the allocation of production or use of goods and services by the free market is not efficient. Market failures can be viewed as scenarios where individuals' pursuit of pure self-interest leads to results that can be improved upon from the societal point of view.[6] The first known use of the term by economists was in 1958,[7] but the concept has been traced back to the Victorian philosopher Henry Sidgwick.[8]
Market imperfection can be defined as anything that interferes with trade.[9] This includes two dimensions of imperfections.[9] First, imperfections cause a rational market participant to deviate from holding the market portfolio.[9] Second, imperfections cause a rational market participant to deviate from his preferred risk level.[9] Market imperfections generate costs which interfere with trades that rational individuals make (or would make in the absence of the imperfection).[9]
The idea that multinational corporations (MNEs) owe their existence to market imperfections was first put forward by Stephen Hymer, Charles P. Kindleberger and Caves.[10] The market imperfections they had in mind were, however, structural imperfections in markets for final products.[11]
According to Hymer, market imperfections are structural, arising from structural deviations from perfect competition in the final product market due to exclusive and permanent control of proprietary technology, privileged access to inputs, scale economies, control of distribution systems, and product differentiation,[12] but in their absence markets are perfectly efficient.[11]
By contrast, the insight of transaction costs theories of the MNEs, simultaneously and independently developed in the 1970s by McManus (1972), Buckley and Casson (1976), Brown (1976) and Hennart (1977, 1982), is that market imperfections are inherent attributes of markets, and MNEs are institutions to bypass these imperfections.[11] Markets experience natural imperfections, i.e. imperfections that are because the implicit neoclassical assumptions of perfect knowledge and perfect enforcement are not realized.[13]
New Trade Theory[edit]
New Trade Theory (NTT) is the economic critique of international free trade from the perspective of increasing returns to scale and the network effect. Some economists have asked whether it might be effective for a nation to shelter infant industries until they had grown to a sufficient size large enough to compete internationally.
New Trade theorists challenge the assumption of diminishing returns to scale, and some argue that using protectionist measures to build up a huge industrial base in certain industries will then allow those sectors to dominate the world market (via a network effect).
Specific factors model[edit]
In this model, labour mobility between industries is possible while capital is immobile between industries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model.
Traditional approaches[edit]
The Porter diamond[14]
Diamond model (Michael Porter)[edit]
The diamond model is an economical model developed by Michael Porter in his book The Competitive Advantage of Nations, where he published his theory of why particular industries become competitive in particular locations.[15]
The diamond model consists of six factors:[15]
- Factor conditions
- Demand conditions
- Related and supporting industries
- Firm strategy, structure and rivalry
- Government
- Chance
The Porter thesis is that these factors interact with each other to create conditions where innovation and improved competitiveness occurs.[15]
Diffusion of innovations (Rogers, 1962)[edit]
Diffusion of innovation is a theory of how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. Everett Rogers introduced it in his 1962 book, Diffusion of Innovations, writing that 'Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.'[16]
Eclectic paradigm (John H. Dunning)[edit]
The eclectic paradigm is a theory in economics and is also known as the OLI-Model.[17][18] It is a further development of the theory of internalization and published by John H. Dunning in 1993.[19] The theory of internalization itself is based on the transaction cost theory.[19] This theory says that transactions are made within an institution if the transaction costs on the free market are higher than the internal costs. This process is called internalization.[19]
For Dunning, not only the structure of organization is important.[19] He added three additional factors to the theory:[19]
- Ownership advantages[17] (trademark, production technique, entrepreneurial skills, returns to scale)[18]
- Locational advantages (existence of raw materials, low wages, special taxes or tariffs)[18]
- Internalisation advantages (advantages by producing through a partnership arrangement such as licensing or a joint venture)[18]
Foreign direct investment theory[edit]
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in its classic form is defined as a company from one country making a physical investment into building a factory in another country. It is the establishment of an enterprise by a foreigner.[20] Its definition can be extended to include investments made to acquire lasting interest in enterprises operating outside of the economy of the investor.[21] The FDI relationship consists of a parent enterprise and a foreign affiliate which together form a multinational corporation (MNC). In order to qualify as FDI the investment must afford the parent enterprise control over its foreign affiliate. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) defines control in this case as owning 10% or more of the ordinary shares or voting power of an incorporated firm or its equivalent for an unincorporated firm; lower ownership shares are known as portfolio investment.[22]
Monopolistic advantage theory (Stephen Hymer)[edit]
The monopolistic advantage theory is an approach in international business which explains why firms can compete in foreign settings against indigenous competitors[23] and is frequently associated with the seminal contribution of Stephen Hymer.[24]
Prior to Stephen Hymer’s doctoral thesis, The International Operations of National Firms: A Study of foreign direct Investment, theories did not adequately explain why firms engaged in foreign operations.Hymer started his research by analyzing the motivations behind foreign investment of US corporations in other countries. Neoclassical theories, dominant at the time, explained foreign direct investments as capital movements across borders based on perceived benefits from interest rates in other markets, there was no need to separate them from any other kind of investment (Ietto-Guilles, 2012).
He effectively differentiated Foreign Direct Investment and portfolio investments by including the notion of control of foreign firms to FDI Theory, which implies control of the operation; whilst portfolio foreign investment confers a share of ownership but not control. Stephen Hymer focused on and considered FDI and MNE as part of the theory of the firm. (Hymer, 1976: 21)
He also dismissed the assumption that FDIs are motivated by the search of low costs in foreign countries, by emphasizing the fact that local firms are not able to compete effectively against foreign firms, even though they have to face foreign barriers (cultural, political, lingual etc.) to market entry. He suggested that firms invest in foreign countries in order to maximize their specific firm advantages in imperfect markets, that is, markets where the flow of information is uneven and allows companies to benefit from a competitive advantage over the local competition.
Stephen Hymer also suggested a second determinant for firms engaging in foreign operations, removal of conflicts. When a rival company is operating in a foreign market or is willing to enter one, a conflict situation arises. Through FDI, a multinational can share or take complete control of foreign production, effectively removing conflict. This will lead to the increase of market power for the specific firm, increasing imperfections in the market as a whole (Ietto-Guilles, 2012)
A final determinant for multinationals making direct investments is the distribution of risk through diversification. By choosing different markets and production locations, the risk inherent to foreign operations are spread and reduced.
All of these motivations for FDI are built on market imperfections and conflict. A firm engaging in direct investment could then reduce competition, eliminate the conflicts and exploit the firm specific advantages making them capable of succeeding in a foreign market.
Stephen Hymer can be considered the father of international business because he effectively studied multinationals from a different perspective than the existing literature, by approaching multinationals as national companies with international operations, regarded as expansions from home operations. He analyzed the activities of the MNEs and their impact on the economy, gave an explanation for the large flow of foreign investments by US corporations at a time where they were incomplete, and envisioned the ethical conflicts that could arise from the increase in power of MNEs.
Non-availability approach (Irving B. Kravis, 1956)[edit]
The non-availability explains international trade by the fact that each country imports the goods that are not available at home.[25] This unavailability may be due to lack of natural resources (oil, gold, etc.: this is absolute unavailability) or to the fact that the goods cannot be produced domestically, or could only be produced at prohibitive costs (for technological or other reasons): this is relative unavailability.[26] On the other hand, each country exports the goods that are available at home.[26]
Technology gap theory of trade (Michael Posner)[edit]
The technology gap theory describes an advantage enjoyed by the country that introduces new goods in a market. As a consequence of research activity and entrepreneurship, new goods are produced and the innovating country enjoys a monopoly until the other countries learn to produce these goods: in the meantime they have to import them. Thus, international trade is created for the time necessary to imitate the new goods (imitation lag).[25]
Uppsala model[edit]
The Uppsala model[27] is a theory that explains how firms gradually intensify their activities in foreign markets.[28] It is similar to the POM model.[29] The key features of both models are the following: firms first gain experience from the domestic market before they move to foreign markets; firms start their foreign operations from culturally and/or geographically close countries and move gradually to culturally and geographically more distant countries; firms start their foreign operations by using traditional exports and gradually move to using more intensive and demanding operation modes (sales subsidiaries etc.) both at the company and target country level.[30]
Further theories[edit]
Contingency theory[edit]
Contingency theory refers to any of a number of management theories. Several contingency approaches were developed concurrently in the late 1960s. They suggested that previous theories such as Weber's bureaucracy and Frederick Winslow Taylor's scientific management had failed because they neglected that management style and organizational structure were influenced by various aspects of the environment: the contingency factors. There could not be 'one best way' for leadership or organization.
Contract theory[edit]
In economics, contract theory studies how economic actors can and do construct contractual arrangements, generally in the presence of asymmetric information. Contract theory is closely connected to the field of law and economics. One prominent field of application is managerial compensation.
Economy of scale[edit]
Economies of scale, in microeconomics, are the cost advantages that a business obtains due to expansion. They are factors that cause a producer’s average cost per unit to fall as output rises.[31]Diseconomies of scale are the opposite. Economies of scale may be utilized by any size firm expanding its scale of operation.
Internalisation theory (Peter J. Buckley & Mark Casson, 1976; Rugman, 1981)[edit]
Product life-cycle theory[edit]
As first articulated by Raymond Vernon in 1966, a product goes through a life cycle consisting of four stages: 'new product', 'growth product', 'maturity product' and 'obsolescence product'. The conditions in which a product is sold change over time and must be managed as it moves through this succession of stages. This is called product life cycle management. [32]
Transaction cost theory[edit]
The theory of the firm consists of a number of economic theories which describe the nature of the firm, company, or corporation, including its existence, its behaviour, and its relationship with the market.
Ronald Coase set out his transaction cost theory of the firm in 1937, making it one of the first (neo-classical) attempts to define the firm theoretically in relation to the market.[33] Coase sets out to define a firm in a manner which is both realistic and compatible with the idea of substitution at the margin, so instruments of conventional economic analysis apply. He notes that a firm’s interactions with the market may not be under its control (for instance because of sales taxes), but its internal allocation of resources are: “Within a firm, ... market transactions are eliminated and in place of the complicated market structure with exchange transactions is substituted the entrepreneur ... who directs production.” He asks why alternative methods of production (such as the price mechanism and economic planning), could not either achieve all production, so that either firms use internal prices for all their production, or one big firm runs the entire economy.
Theory of the growth of the firm (Edith Penrose, 1959)[edit]
While at Johns Hopkins, Penrose participated in a research project on the growth of firms. She came to the conclusion that the existing theory of the firm was inadequate to explain how firms grow. Her insight was to realise that the 'Firm' in theory is not the same thing as 'flesh and blood' organizations that businessmen call firms. This insight eventually led to the publication of her second book, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm in 1959.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^Susman, Gerald I. (2007). Small and Medium-sized Enterprises and the Global Economy. Young et al., 2003. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 281. ISBN1-84542-595-2.
- ^Alon, Ilan; Anderson, John; Munim, Ziaul Haque; Ho, Alice (2018). 'A review of the internationalization of Chinese enterprises'. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. 35 (3): 573–605. doi:10.1007/s10490-018-9597-5.
- ^ abcIngham, Barbara (2004). International economics: a European focus. Pearson Education. p. 336. ISBN0-273-65507-8.
- ^ abcdHunt, E. K. (2002). History of economic thought: A critical perspective. M.E. Sharpe. p. 120. ISBN0-7656-0607-0.
- ^Blaug, Mark (1992). The methodology of economics, or, How economists explain. Cambridge University Press. p. 190. ISBN0-521-43678-8.
- ^Krugman, Paul, Wells, Robin, Economics, Worth Publishers, New York, (2006)
- ^Bator, Francis M. (August 1958). 'The Anatomy of Market Failure'. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. The MIT Press. 72 (3): 351–379. doi:10.2307/1882231. JSTOR1882231.
- ^Medema, Steven G. (July 2004). 'Mill, Sidgwick, and the Evolution of the Theory of Market Failure'(PDF). Retrieved 2007-06-23.
- ^ abcdeDeGennaro, Ramon P. (December 2005). 'Market Imperfections'(PDF). Working Paper. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta - Working Paper Series. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2010-04-01. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
- ^Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Hymer (1960, published in 1976), Kindleberger (1969) & Caves (1971). Routledge. p. 74. ISBN0-415-16787-6.
- ^ abcPitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Routledge. p. 224. ISBN0-415-16787-6.
- ^Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Bain (1956). Routledge. p. 74. ISBN0-415-16787-6.
- ^Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Dunning & Rugman (1985), Teece (1981). Routledge. p. 74. ISBN0-415-16787-6.
- ^Traill, Bruce; Eamonn Pitts (1998). Competitiveness in the Food Industry. Porter (1990, p. 127). Springer. p. 19. ISBN0-7514-0431-4.
- ^ abcTraill, Bruce; Eamonn Pitts (1998). Competitiveness in the Food Industry. Springer. p. 301. ISBN0-7514-0431-4.
- ^Rogers, Everett M. (2003).Diffusion of Innovations, 5th ed.. New York, NY: Free Press.
- ^ abHagen, Antje (1997). Deutsche Direktinvestitionen in Grossbritannien, 1871–1918(Dissertation) (in German). Jena: Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 32. ISBN3-515-07152-0.
- ^ abcdTwomey, Michael J. (2000). A Century of Foreign Investment in the Third World(Book). Routledge. p. 8. ISBN0-415-23360-7.
- ^ abcdeFalkenhahn, Alexander; Roman Stanslowski (2001-11-27). 'Das Eklektische Paradigma des John Dunning'(PDF). Seminar paper (in German). Retrieved 2009-02-19.[permanent dead link]
- ^O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 551. ISBN0-13-063085-3.
- ^Foreign Direct Investment, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, www.unctad.org
- ^International Monetary Fund, 1993. Balance of Payments Manual, fifth edition (Washington, D.C.)
- ^Bürgel, Oliver (2000). The internationalisation of British start-up companies in high-technology industries. Springer (Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung). p. 48. ISBN3-7908-1292-7.
- ^Bürgel, Oliver (2000). The internationalisation of British start-up companies in high-technology industries. Hymer (1976); Hymer's original thesis was completed in 1960, but it was only after his death, in 1976, that it was published by the MIT. By that time, his ideas had already found widespread acceptance. Springer (Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung). p. 48. ISBN3-7908-1292-7.
- ^ abGandolfo, Giancarlo (1998). International Trade Theory and Policy: With 12 Tables. Irving B. Kravis (1956). Springer. p. 233–234. ISBN3-540-64316-8.
- ^ abGandolfo, Giancarlo (1998). International Trade Theory and Policy: With 12 Tables. Springer. p. 544. ISBN3-540-64316-8.
- ^Elgar, Edward (2003). Learning in the Internationalisation Process of Firms. Johanson & Wiedersheim-Paul (1975), Johanson & Vahlne (1977). p. 261. ISBN1-84064-662-4. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ^Blomstermo, Anders; Dharma Deo Sharma (2003). Learning in the internationalisation process of firms. Edward Elgar. pp. 36–53. ISBN978-1-84064-662-7.
- ^Elgar, Edward (2003). Learning in the Internationalisation Process of Firms. Luostarinen (1979). p. 261. ISBN1-84064-662-4. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ^Elgar, Edward (2003). Learning in the Internationalisation Process of Firms. p. 261. ISBN1-84064-662-4. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ^O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 157. ISBN0-13-063085-3.
- ^Vernon, Raymond (1966). International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle. in: Quarterly Journal of Economics. Cambridge. p. 191. ISSN0033-5533.[permanent dead link]
- ^Coase, Ronald H., 'The Nature of the Firm', Economica 4, pp 386-405, 1937.
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